The Renaissance in Italy, and the ways in which the cultural life of the Italian city-states influenced developments in the rest of Europe.
A secular conception of life, and the replacement of collective responsibility by a new belief in individualism.
The humanists, their adoption of the vernacular, and their forging of modern critical methods and literary styles.
The new political philosophy of Machiavelli.
The Renaissance in northern Europe, in which religion played a greater role.
The new monarchs of Europe, who laid the foundations for the national, or territorial, state.
The dissatisfaction of the common people, middle classes, and rulers with the Church.
Luther's criticisms of the Church, and the social and political rebellions caused by Lutheranism.
Similarities and differences between Calvinism and Lutheranism.
The founding of the Church of England.
Catholic responses to the Protestant Reformation—the Council of Trent and the Counter-Crusade.
The continued struggle between the papacy and secular rulers, which led to the Babylonian Captivity, the Great Schism, and ultimately, the conciliar movement.
The Black Death and its social and political repercussions.
