Reflections: In the best of all possible worlds, social issues are easily recognized and resolved. Many of them, however, start to look like they’ve settled down, when they pop up again. Reasoning around social problems has roots that go far into our collective psyche— our societal mindset. These roots are grounded in fundamental cultural values, ethics, politics, and religious beliefs. Some social problems, as those faced at summits, are global in scope. Others are more nationally focused. Still other social problems get played out at the level of communities, neighborhoods, and between individuals. We’ll look at the range of the social dimension in this chapter and see the value of critical thinking tools for assessing them.
Goals: In this chapter, we look at a range of social problems facing us as a society or as individuals. Some are large, some small. But all require us to consider our assumptions, think about our values and beliefs, and try to arrive at a decision that can be justified. My goals here are two:
1. To become more aware at the range of social problems that require some kind of action (laws, guidelines, personal decisions, and so on) that rely upon our ability to think clearly and gather evidence.
2. To become more adept at arriving at decisions to social problems while keeping in mind the nature of the problem, the different ways of approaching and/or resolving the problem, and how we can effectively justify any decisions or recommendations we make. Using the guidelines set out in this chapter can be helpful in accomplishing both of these goals.
The Social Dimension of Everyday Life
Think of the range of social issues facing our lives. Some of these issues only indirectly affect us; others touch our lives. Think about all the aspects of an issue like honesty and ask yourself how it has touched your life. Looking at the case of Joseph Ellis, a professor who lied about his past helps us see how dishonesty can have significant repercussions.
Broader Significance of Social Frameworks and Moral Reasoning
Some social conflicts and moral problems are ongoing. These wide-ranging issues seem to defy resolution. On the other hand, some are resolved fairly quickly. The narrower the scope, the more likely is a resolution. It is not always easy to apply ethical guidelines or legal rulings, especially to a controversial case. For instance, how near can someone get to an abortion clinic to handout protest literature? Someone had to figure that out. An example of an issue that raises broad social and ethical questions is this “Is it morally acceptable to use violence to stop an abortion?” Looking at this dilemma requires a careful look at assumptions as well as evidence on both sides. As with the “Nuremberg Files” case, many social issues turn to the courts for redress.
Social and Ethical Decision-Making Guidelines
Decision-Making Guidelines for Social and Moral Reasoning
1. Define the Problem. State it in its broadest terms, noting potential societal impact. And state it in its narrowest terms, noting the potential repercussions of the case at hand. Note how the very formulation of the problem shapes how we are going to solve it.
2. Sharpen the Focus. Clarify the parameters of the decision-making. Know who is facing the dilemma, who is making the decision, who is most affected by the decision, what are the options, and what set of criteria will be used to make the decision.
3. Clarify the Context. Examine the problem in terms of whose problem it is and how the different options would impact the lives of those involved.
4. Gather Information. Know the specific details of the case at hand. Set out all relevant evidence or information that can help make an informed choice.
5. Clarify Key Concepts and Ideas. Look at the relevant concepts that bear upon the social or ethical decision. Think of concepts as the framework of evaluation. Be aware of how they are being interpreted. Don’t assume those interpretations are fixed.
6. Examine Assumptions. Often invisible, assumptions can wreak havoc.
7. Identify Frameworks. Look at the norms, beliefs, ethics, political or ideological frameworks that shape the decision-making. issues.
8. Shift Perspectives. Go into sufficient detail to see distinctly different ways of viewing the issue and assessing how the decision will impact others.
9. Target Your Audience. Knowing the audience allows you to make certain assumptions as well; e.g., in terms of needing to define terms, documenting claims, citing sources, etc.
10. Formulate a Position. Articulate as clearly as you can what your position is and why you hold it. See if you’ve got your evidence lined up to make your best case.
11. Anticipate Criticism. Consider the opponents' position and try to answer them.
12. Set out Your Argument. You know where you stand, you’ve thought about the ideas and issues, and gathered the support. As best as you can, set out your decision!
Assessing Policies and Guidelines
Some issues cry out for policies and guidelines. If we allow one group to adopt a highway, for example, do we allow any and all others? When we draw up policy guidelines, we are generalizing from our societal attitudes (and often norms), and our moral beliefs or principles. Once we say, “You ought to do such and so,” we are giving a moral prescription. That is, we are setting forth a recommendation for how others should think and behave. To some extent, laws define acceptable modes of behavior, though laws do not necessarily set down ethical guidelines. Also, laws are not always respected. It is vital that we look at what we believe in and come to some understanding of what we would do in the name of those beliefs.
The Societal Context
At the heart of the most pressing issues we face as a society are moral problems. They tend to fall into categories like: the workplace, health care, social justice, the legal system, education, and economic issues. One of the major issues facing us as a society—and one that has brought negative criticism from countries around the world—is our policy on the death penalty (thus, the issue is examined here in this chapter).
Individual Accountability
At times we face agonizing dilemmas, even if we try to avoid them or if others try to protect us. Moral agency has to do with being capable of moral decision-making, being seen as responsible for our actions, and being held accountable for those actions.A host of moral questions arise in confronting these issues. We ought not let the complexities prevent us from looking at the moral issues carefully. It is important to reflect upon the moral concerns we face as a society and to look at the various issues facing us in our individual lives. Political involvement may be a response from a personal situation or broader social events and interests.
Personal Autonomy
A central issue when examining decision-making is whether or not we are free to choose and to what degree we will be held accountable for our choice. To be held accountable, we need to know that the person whose action is being scrutinized is (a) free to choose and (b) had the competence (so it is informed consent) to do so. It would be hard to hold you accountable for your actions if you were not free to make a choice. Accountability requires competence and free will. If one is absent, we may be reluctant to punish an offender.
We value our freedom. We see this in all areas of our lives. One of the most significant areas is the medical sphere, where most patients try to exercise control over their lives. For this, they need to be able to make informed decisions. It is now generally seen that, patient autonomy must be reckoned with. For the most part, patients have considerable autonomy over what happens to their own body.
Challenges to Personal Autonomy
We tend to draw the line around the two aspects of autonomy: Was the patient free to choose and was she competent? Our society does not grant children legal autonomy, because they are not thought to be fully cognizant of the moral dimensions of a case or able to fully grasp the issues so as to be considered competent to make an informed decision. Prisoners have little autonomy. It is generally believed that prisoners have willingly—i.e., through their own actions—given up the right to any full expression of autonomy. Case in point: right to refuse anthrax vaccines on the part of members of the armed forces.
The Impact of Science and Technology on the Social Dimension
Scientific progress and technological changes have brought with them many social dilemmas, such as: cloning, stem cell research, surrogate parenting, egg donation and sales, embryo transfers and storage, harvesting animal organs for human transplants, etc.). Technology has opened up a Pandora’s box of ethical, legal, and social controversies. And we know it’s not over yet.
Know Thyself
We are confronted with many social and moral dilemmas in the course of our lives. We must decide which ones warrant our reflection and response. Part of our responsibility to the community is to act as watchdogs to help us work toward peaceful resolutions to problems. That’s not always easy, as we’ve seen in some of the cases in this chapter. It pays to know what we believe in. Sometimes we have time to reflect on what we ought to do. Other times we have only a few minutes to decide what is right or wrong. But we have the rest of our lives to live with our decision.
Reflecting on Our Own Morality
We stand to gain by undertaking a moral inventory. Socrates was not making idle chatter when he said, “Know Thyself.” Most of us have no idea how strong our moral fiber is or how strong our depth of character. A test of moral strength can come at us when we least expect it. We never know when we will face a natural disaster, car accident, plane crash, bank robbery, or other sort of crisis.
Self Inventory
The Personal and Social Dimension of Values1. What five traits do you value most highly in a friend? Note what that tells you about your values and beliefs.
2. What could a friend do that would jeopardize your relationship? Note what this reveals about your values and beliefs.
3. What is your sense of your own integrity? Note what you think personal integrity entails in assessing yourself and others.
4. How important do you see community involvement and charitable work? Note what it tells you about the person who gets involved.
5. How important do you see voting, political participation, and social action? Note what it tells you about the person who gets involved.
6. What five character traits do you value most highly in yourself? Note what you think they reveal to others about who you are.
7. What is your most admirable trait? Do you think others see it too? What is your own “weakest link” in terms of strength of character? Note what would happen if these two traits switched places.
6. What personal story would reveal your commitment to justice or goodness in your own life?
7. Who do you admire among the people you actually know? Note the ways this person has made a difference to your life or those around you.
8. Who do you admire as a public figure? Note the ways in which this person has contributed to the society.
9. What would you like to be remembered for? Note if you are doing anything to work toward that legacy.
10. What do you plan to have accomplished in the next 5 years and in the next 10 years that sets a direction for your life?