| Accent | One of the fallacies of ambiguity. This fallacy occurs when accent (where the emphasis of a word or phrase leads us to an incorrect conclusion being drawn.
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| Ambiguity | A lack of clarity in the use of language either by accident or intent, resulting in a confusion that may lead to an incorrect conclusion being drawn. Problems can occur when words, grammar, or sentence structure is used in ways that create an ambiguity. Sometimes the problems are like seeing in a fog; whereby the confusing use of language allows a variety of interpretations. Of course, some people use slippery language intentionally, manipulatively-- twisting their words to suit their purposes.
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| Amphiboly | One of the fallacies of ambiguity. This fallacy occurs when the sentence structure or use of grammar creates an ambiguity, leading to an incorrect conclusion being drawn.
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| Antonyms | Words that are opposite in meaning (e.g., hot and cold).
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| Asymmetrical Descriptions | When members of one group are referred to, valued, or described in ways that would not be given to a different group the resulting description is asymmetrical. An asymmetry usually indicates a double standard--where the rules or expectations are applied unfairly to the different groups, generally resulting in one group being treated with more leniency or given higher status.
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| Buzzwords (see jargon) | A newly coined word or an old word used in a new way or used in a totally different context for an intended effect.
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| Categories (see labels) | Words used to characterize something or someone--such as a person, group, or set of objects. Categories can be neutral or imbued with meaning (positive or negative).
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| Connotation | The connotation points to the figurative senses. That is, the connotation is the set of associations attached to the word or description in question, indicating a set of values or attitudes associated with the word.
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| Culturally Defined Uses of Language | Our society and culture shape our use of language. There are norms around who can say what to whom, who can speak and in what order, and who gets the first and last word. We find these norms in public gatherings or in family dynamics.
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| Definiendum | The word or phrase that is being clarified or the meaning is sought.
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| Definiens | The words meaning the same as the word or phrase in question (=the explanation, the definition).
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| Denotation | The denotation of a word or phrase points to the most specific or literal meaning, as you would find in a dictionary definition.
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| Description | A description is a list of facts (physical features or details) associated with a particular object, person, or action and could theoretically at least be verified by another. Ideally, descriptions are impartial, but they often indicate societal attitudes or values (in terms of what is focused on in the description and the choice of words used to describe).
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| Double Standard | When rules are applied unfairly to different groups, resulting in one group being treated with higher or lower status than the other.
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| Equivocation | One of the fallacies of ambiguity. This fallacy occurs when there is a shift of meaning in a word or phrase leading to an incorrect conclusion being drawn.
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| Euphemism | A euphemism acts as a substitute for the targeted word, in order to achieve a particular end. The goal may be to defuse a situation that is controversial or it could be to slant it with a set of political or other values more favorable to the speaker. Whatever the motivation, the result is a slippery word that is used to refocus the audience's attention.
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| Hate speech | Hate speech is a particular kind of loaded language. Hate speech is used to insult or demean a person or group because of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, nationality, religion, age, or disability.
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| Hedging | Hedging has the effect of undercutting the claim or raising doubts about it. Hedging can take two forms: (1) it can indicate a shift from one position to a much weaker one; or (2) it can undercut a claim or suggest a negative connotation of a phrase or claim being made. Hedging is more often found in oral communication than written expression.
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| Jargon | The language of a particular group or profession or the specialized technical terminology coined for a specific purpose or effect.
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| Labels (see categories) | Words used to characterize something or someone--such as a person, group, or set of objects. Labels can be neutral or imbued with meaning (positive or negative).
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| Liberatory voice | Works of inspiration that have a transformative effect on the reader. Think of those who have stood up against injustice and raised their voices in opposition. Think of those who have galvanized an entire community to confront oppression and work for social change. Think of those who wrote down their thoughts and ideas, even in the most repressive environments, like prisons, internment camps, boarding schools, plantations, abusive households, and violent relationships.
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| Linguistic fallacies | These are known as fallacies of ambiguity because they all center on different ways language can be used to create a confusion or ambiguity, leading to an incorrect conclusion being drawn.
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| Loaded language | Language that is value-laden, heavy with connotation (positive or negative) and, thus, indicative of a bias.
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| Metaphor | A metaphor is the application of a word or phrase to draw a comparison or indicate a similarity (e.g., "she is a shrew and he's a snake").
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| Passive voice | The passive voice is when we make the object of an action into the subject of a sentence, as in "The chicken was eaten by the coyote." Passive constructions can be spotted by looking for a form of "to be" followed by a past participle. One effect of the passive voice is that it avoids calling attention to the one performing an action (the coyote)--rather its focus is upon the recipient of the action (the chicken).
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| Propaganda | With propaganda, words are used to shape public consciousness, to predispose people to certain ideas, policies and actions--and manipulate them to think, vote, and act in ways in sync with the propaganda machine. Propaganda can come from all directions--left, right, and center--it is the substance, not the source that marks propaganda.
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| Question-begging epithet | This is a fallacy that occurs when language is biased so that it stacks the deck in either a positive or negative direction that we are drawn to an incorrect conclusion. This results from the slanted language causing us to unfairly prejudge the case.
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| Satire | A satire is a work that ridicules or pokes fun at its subject (people, groups, institutions, countries, etc.) in order to bring about a particular effect, such as social change.
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| Semantics | Questions of semantics have to do with the meanings of words, what they signify.
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| Synonyms | Words that are similar in meaning (e.g., warm and toasty).
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| Syntax | Questions about syntax have to do with punctuation, grammar, word order, and sentence structure.
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| Weasel words | Slippery terms that are used in manipulative ways, twisting the meaning of words or phrases to create a certain effect.
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