Chapter Twelve Overview
Reflections: Both problem solving and question techniques are invaluable to us critical thinkers. If you can't solve the problem of how to change a flat tire, you could be sitting by the roadside for an awfully long time. If you can't find the right question to ask your doctor when he tells you that you've torn a ligament from trying to change the tire yourself, then you may not know your prognosis. And if you can't write a letter to the tire manufacturer about your brand new tire having a blowout for no apparent reason, you may not be able to get redress as soon as you'd like.
Goals: In this chapter I have three main goals:
- To set out useful tools for problem solving and show how to apply the techniques.
- To look at different types of questions so you can get a handle on how to proceed when faced with one or more of the sorts of questions that might be asked (e.g., in a test or an essay assignment).
- To set out some handy hints for writing, including how to approach the LSAT writing exam.
Specialized Tools: Problem Solving, Question Techniques and Writing Skills
That's what we will be looking at in this chapter; namely problem-solving, question techniques, and then writing skills. Here's why these are valuable
Problem Solving
We are not always in a position to jump right in and start something. Often we must consider alternatives, select an option, and draw up a plan of action first. Critical Thinking entails many levels of thinking and many approaches. Some might be considered "higher order," others "lower order." But all orders have their place. Part of our goal as learners is to use the right tool for the right task and to explore new paths that allow us to expand our repertoire and our skills at thinking and reflecting.
Not all Decisions are Good
Not all problem solving is going to be successful. Some are well-intended bad decisions. Some decisions can't be taken back at a later date. Some decisions can be rethought entirely so the original (deficient) solution can be ameliorated or erased. When we are in the middle of problem solving, we have to think of both short-term goals and long-term consequences. We also have to think about what we are bringing into the decision-making that we don't want to compromise.
Problem Solving Model
Often problem solving can be divided into discrete steps. This is adapted from a model developed by Psychology Professor, Robert Sternberg. It involves discrete steps and works best on problems that can be fairly clearly delineated. Frequently our goal may not be to arrive at a specific answer, but is useful in allowing us to get a better handle on the question. With an overview of the territory, we can then develop a macro-plan or policy. In this way we can address the issues that are interrelated.
Problem Solving Model: A Seven-Step Solution System
Step One: Define the Problem
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Step Two: Set Criteria & Standards
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Step Three: Gather Evidence
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Step Four: Sort and Weigh Evidence
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Step Five: Aerial Surveillance--
Form a Picture & Set out a Hypothesis
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Step Six: Critical Examination--
Compare Old and New Data
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Step Seven: Draw an Inference--
Arrive at a Solution
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Stages of the Problem Solving Model
Stage One: In the first stage, we want to define the problem or articulate goals.
Stage Two: Next, we want to set out the criteria framing the decision-making.
Stage Three: Gather evidence-- conduct research, compile data and generate ideas.
Stage Four: Sorting and Weighing. Only keep that which fits the criteria.
Stage Five: Aerial Surveillance. Get an overview by piecing together the data and evidence gathered.
Stage Six: Comparison of New and Old Data.
Stage Seven: Draw a Conclusion.
Process of Elimination
In the process of problem solving, we may have to use a process of elimination. Sometimes this is obvious and straightforward, e.g., when we can easily assess what might or might not warrant closer examination. Sometimes it's a hit-and-miss proposition, entailing repeated attempts to narrow down the body of evidence or relevant factors in order to arrive at a solution.
In a process of elimination (e.g., of possible causes of an event or probable suspects in a crime) we use our deductive, and sometimes inductive, reasoning skills. Let's look at a case in which researchers attempted to use a process of elimination to solve a medical mystery. Though a number of radically different hypotheses were offered, the mystery remains unsolved. Read about the case and see what you direction you think the investigation should have taken.
Solving Cases with Seemingly-Minor Evidence
It is fascinating to think that crimes have been solved with only minor pieces of evidence. By a process of elimination all reasonable alternatives are removed, leaving only one as the solution. It requires careful attention, to details, though, as you will see. The solution may lie in as small a detail as a staple.
Questioning Techniques
Questions are extremely important things to understand. A trick question can fool us into revealing things that may be hurtful or incriminating. An obscurely worded question can hide the real intent of the author/speaker and be used to manipulate people. Our answers to questions, like those on essay exams and writing assignments, can make all the difference in what we get out of a class and the grade we receive. For example, perhaps the professor wanted a detailed discussion involving comparison and contrast, while you (fool!) thought the professor just wanted us to regurgitate information found in the encyclopedia.
Getting a Handle on Questions
Questions can range along the objective-subjective spectrum. For example, the question may be an "objective" fact-based question devoid of personal interpretation. Some professors even ask students to submit a list of possible quiz questions or questions for the final exam. When this happens, students have some input in shaping the course material and requirements. Knowing about questioning techniques can be very useful.
Getting a Handle on Expectations
Some answers to questions require a subjective or personal response, such as interpreting a novel or a work of art. In those cases, the answers are not clear-cut, unlike mathematical problem solutions. Furthermore, some questions require us to state a moral or social position. This may entail a fair amount of critical thinking skills. It may, thus, be helpful to understand the types of questions we may run across. This can be pictured as a spectrum or spiral, where we move from questions that are at a distance and ask us to be dispassionate, detached fact finders, to questions that ask us to draw from our values and beliefs in setting out our answers. In a nutshell, questions range along a spectrum that focuses on the factual or objective, at one end, to the most subjective or reflective, at the other.
Different Types of Questions Recall: Draws on memory, useful for assimilating large amounts of data, generally considered a "low level" thinking skill, tests our knowledge of what is the case, such as facts. Descriptive: Draws on observational skills, useful for clarification, calls upon a certain kind of precision and ability to separate description from inference. Dialogical: Is basically hypothetical, but requires the student to bring together potentially divergent areas or thinkers and see connections -- and do so in the form of a dialogue. Application: Here we apply a theory or concept to specific cases, related areas of discourse, or even other disciplines. Conceptual: Draws upon knowledge of key terms and concepts and asks students to think on a more abstract level. Theoretical: These are as abstract as conceptual questions. They are geared to help us think about the way things -- or systems -- work by looking at how they are arranged and what sorts of boundaries exist. Analogical: Comparing and contrasting two distinct things helps clarify characteristics of both. Hypothetical: Draws on inferential skills and ability to imagine consequences or potential states of affairs, often requires us to synthesize a body of material. Persuasive: Draws upon skills of assessment, ability to discern and weigh evidence, and techniques of persuasion, using sound reasoning. Evaluative: These, like value questions, rely upon a context of attitudes, norms, values, beliefs, but do not necessarily draw upon any specific set of normative values or religious beliefs. In an evaluation, an assessment is made on the basis of a set of criteria. Value Questions: These may involve a persuasive element, but draw upon knowledge of a larger value framework, such as a religious or an ethical belief system. These may involve value judgments. Meta-cognition or Watching your own thinking process: This draws upon observation skills, reflective skills, and the ability to abstract what we do to seeing how we do it. Personal-Reflective: Here we are into the core of the subjective response, draws upon the stand reflect on why they believe one thing as opposed to another. |
Writing Techniques: Essays
To become a better writer, the most important thing you can do is to write. The next most important thing is to read good writing. The very act of writing, writing, writing, changes everything. For some, writing is more terrifying than encountering the zombies from Night of the Living Dead. But don't despair: you can become a more proficient writer if you apply yourself.
In developing our writing techniques we want to be comfortable with the following: writing hints, fine points about writing essays, key things to look for in assessing writing, and answering exam questions, such as on the LSAT, where we are presented with a choice between two options. Here are some keys for becoming a better writer. We'll go into each one, so we can get a handle on ways to transform our writing. We can learn to structure our writing so it is clear, coherent, and convincing.
Key Writing Hints
- Write as frequently as you can.
- Don't wait until the last minute.
- Use an outline.
- Now write a first draft.
- If more research is required, get started.
- Document as you go.
- Clarify goals.
- Watch for Detail.
- Make sure thesis is clear.
- Make a good first impression.
- Examine the body of the work--check for strong arguments and clearly articulated points.
- Read your work aloud.
- Double check documentation.
- Allow time to look over your draft.
- Write a second draft.
- Don't flog a dead horse.
Organization
Planning and organization are valuable tools for developing writing skills. Both take time, but once a plan is in place the time can be used quite constructively. Be prepared when you set down to write your essay. If not, then the "cleanup" -- in the form of rewrites, gathering more quotes, going back and finding those references, trips to the library, Internet research, and making sure we did not screw up the documentation -- will be time consuming and frustrating.
Planning and Structure: The Nitty-Gritty
- Research: When research is appropriate, it clearly strengthens the case.
- Root your quotes and examples: Don't leave quotes floating in space-- tie it your work.
- Watch your language: Do not make judgments ("stupid," "ridiculous," etc.) unless you can establish that judgment is well founded.
- Use analogies carefully: Steer clear of analogies unless you have a strong case.
- Avoid tangential stories: The "this is like such and so" is only a wise move if it is really like such and so.
- Use a clear structure: Be conscious of the structure of your essay.
- Look at transitions.
- Look at sentence style and length: Do not always use long or always use short sentences.
- Use I or we: The impersonal subject, like the passive voice, is a mask that writers hide behind.
- Always read your work aloud
- Explain any technical terms
- Be attentive to appropriate length
- Keep adjectives to a minimum: Nouns usually stand better on their own, so use adjectives sparingly.
- Use a dictionary
- Give credit whenever it is due
- Use a style manual
- Proofread your work
- Do your best: Proofread, retype if necessary, rewrite if necessary.
Tips for Readability
Write with the assumption that your reader is interested and appreciates you speaking simply and from the heart. Go into detail and present your thoughts clearly, concisely and in a way that sparks interest. If your essay bores you, it will probably bore your readers. Find something interesting in your topic area and zero-in on this. Once you have completed your essay, take the time to look it over and make sure it satisfies the following major areas.
Quick Review of an Essay: Short List of Writing Tips
- The introduction should set out the topic area, specific focus of the paper, your thesis and method of approach. Clarify where you are headed and how you plan to get there.
- Set out your case and develop ideas in a careful, consistent and coherent way.
- Use quotes judiciously and only as much as necessary.
- Express your own ideas and make sure YOU are in the paper.
- Make sure research, quotes, statistics, illustrations, examples, and references are well used.
- Watch style. Express yourself clearly and concisely. Don't be too wordy. Go into detail.
- Scrutinize the quality of your arguments.
- Watch that expository essays show balanced inquiry and not a diatribe.
- A conclusion can provide a summary of key points or reflection on what we can learn from the discussion.
- Before you hand it in, reread your paper and rate its quality.
ESSAY EXAMS WITH A CHOICE OF TWO OPTIONS.
Guidelines for Defending a Choice between Options
- Organize your answer in terms of given criteria. Announce decision first, then support with evidence and argument
- Argument can be both positive and negative. The best arguments have both positive and negative elements:
- Criteria may not have equal weight, or you may assign them different weights. Use only the criteria stated, as any added criteria could be used against you.
- Stay focused and aim for clarity and precision. In stating and defending your position, stick to the question and go into detail. Don't go off on tangents.
- Have a strong opening and closing, with the body setting out your argument:
- Use outlining technique in your argument.
- Synthesize material; don't just repeat it. In writing a good answer, show you have read the facts carefully.
- Spelling is important.