Chapter Overviews

Chapter 3: The American Revolution, 1754—1789

Chapter Overviews

This chapter describes how the colonies got accustomed to running their governments independently. British colonial policies that tried to reestablish the king's dominance led to the American Revolution, a peace treaty with England, and a new republic based on the Constitution.

Section 1 discusses how Britain's tightening controls increased tensions in the American colonies. Victory in the French and Indian War left Britain deeply in debt. British leaders, who thought the colonies should help shoulder the war debt, levied new taxes and issued new regulations designed to maintain British authority in the colonies. Angry colonists united in their opposition to the controls and formed patriotic groups such as the Sons of Liberty and the Daughters of Liberty. Colonists protested with pamphlets, demonstrations, boycotts, and even violence. Objecting to the Stamp Act, representatives from nine colonies filed a declaration stating that only colonists' political representatives had the right to tax them. Their protests forced British lawmakers to repeal the Stamp Act, but Parliament retaliated by reasserting its right to make laws for the colonies. The Townshend Acts, another series of regulations and taxes, soon followed. Colonists' resistance and increasing violence in the colonies finally forced Britain to repeal nearly all the Townshend Acts.

Section 2 details the events that led up to the colonists' declaration of independence from Britain. Even though the colonies enjoyed two years of peace, British policies continued to undermine colonial freedoms. Colonists formed the committees of correspondence to communicate with one another about British activities. Escalating colonial resistance provoked Britain to institute the Coercive Acts—a set of laws that severely restricted Massachusetts and violated several English rights. In response, colonists formed the First Continental Congress and organized a boycott of British goods. Continuing to defy Britain, Massachusetts created a provincial congress and militia. British control weakened as other colonies did the same. In April 1775, a battle in Lexington signaled the start of the war. A few weeks later the Second Continental Congress met and formed the Continental Army. Resigned that compromise was unlikely, the Continental Congress took actions to defend its government. Meanwhile, a persuasive pamphlet convinced many colonists that the time had come to declare independence. On July 4, 1776, the Continental Congress issued the Declaration of Independence, signaling the beginning of the Revolution.

Section 3 explores the strategies and battles of the Revolutionary War. George Washington's inexperienced, poorly equipped band of soldiers seemed no match for the confident, well-trained British Army. The British plan to separate the New England states from the Southern states was hampered by their army's slow movement and their generals' failure to coordinate strategies. They successfully captured some important cities and kept Washington's troops on the move, but the British failed to surround American positions. Even though the bitter winter of 1777 devastated the Continental Army, an important victory in New York lifted the Patriots' spirits and convinced France to send troops. Americans used surprise tactics and a stealthy militia to their advantage during the long struggle. The British economy suffered as Americans attacked British merchant ships. In 1781 Washington, supported by French troops and the French navy, surrounded the British at Yorktown, Virginia, and secured the British surrender.

Section 4 describes how the American leaders formed a new republic. John Adams advocated separate branches of government and a legislature that was divided into two houses—the senate and the assembly. Many states wrote new constitutions based on his ideas. States also attached lists of individuals' rights to their constitutions that granted more white men the right to vote, separated church and state, and allowed women some social gains. While thousands of enslaved African Americans won their freedom during the Revolution, loyalists found they had lost their position in American society. The states began to build a national identity reinforced by patriotic symbols, folklore, and art. The government created by the Articles of Confederation failed to address many of the pressing needs of the new nation. While Congress successfully dealt with western settlement and commercial treaties, the problems of a weak central government soon became apparent. Congress was unable to collect taxes, enforce treaties, regulate trade, and deal with the growing national debt. Concerns over weakening property rights led to civil unrest in Massachusetts. As citizens deplored the act of lawlessness, many people began to call for a stronger central government.

Section 5 describes the issues surrounding the Constitution. Fifty-five delegates attended the Constitutional Convention to address the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. They quickly decided to draft a new constitution, but a compromise had to settle a dispute over representation of small states and large states. Other compromises settled conflicts over slavery. The delegates then decided on how the government would operate. They crafted a constitution that provided for a separation of federal power among the three branches of government—executive, legislative, and judicial—and created a system of checks and balances. They also included a system to allow amendments to the Constitution. The Federalists, who supported ratification, led a highly organized campaign that promoted the benefits of a strong central government. Antifederalists opposed ratification because they believed that the Constitution endangered the independence of the states. While several states quickly gave their approval to the new government, other states voted for ratification only after Federalists promised to attach a bill of rights to the Constitution and an amendment that enhanced states' powers. By July 1788, 11 states had ratified the Constitution, and the United States launched its new government.